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Table of Contents

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→ Slide 1

Chapter 1: Systems of linear equations

→ Slide 2

Linear equations

↓ Slide 3

First example: a linear equation in two variables

  • Consider the equation \[ 2x+5y=7.\]
  • This is an equation in two variables, or indeterminates, $x$ and $y$.
  • A solution of this equation is a pair of numbers $(a,b)\in \mathbb{R}^2$ so that if we replace $x$ with $a$ and replace $y$ with $b$, then the equation becomes true.
  • In other words, so that $2a+5b$ really is equal to $7$.
↓ Slide 4

$2x+5y=7$

  • $(3,1)$ is not a solution, because $2\times 3+5\times 1\ne 7$
  • $(1,1)$ is a solution, because $2\times 1+5\times 1=7$
  • Other solutions include $(0,\tfrac 75)$, $(0.5,1.2)$, $(6,-1)$, $(3.5,0)$, $(-\tfrac32,2)$, …
↓ Slide 5

$2x+5y=7$

  • We can't make a complete list of all solutions, since there are infinitely many solutions in $\mathbb{R}^2$. However, we can draw the set of all solutions as a subset of $\mathbb{R}^2$. This turns out to be a straight line
  • $2x+5y=7$ is a linear equation in two variables.
↓ Slide 6

Definition

If $a,b,c$ are any fixed numbers, then equation \[ ax+by=c\] is a linear equation in two variables.

When you draw the set of all solutions of a linear equation in two variables, you always get a straight line in the $x$-$y$ plane.

↓ Slide 7

More examples of linear equations in two variables

  • $y-x=1$
  • $x-y=0$
  • $x=0\iff 1x+0y=0$
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↓ Slide 1

Linear equations in 3 variables

↓ Slide 2

Definition

If $a,b,c,d$ are any fixed numbers, then equation \[ ax+by+cz=d\] is a linear equation in 3 variables.

When you draw the set of all solutions of a linear equation in 3 variables, you always get a plane in 3-dimensional space, $\mathbb{R}^3$.

↓ Slide 3

Examples

↓ Slide 4

Linear equations (in general)

A linear equation in $m$ variables (where $m$ is some natural number) is an equation of the form \[ a_1x_1+a_2x_2+\dots+a_mx_m=b\] where $a_1,a_2,\dots,a_m$ and $b$ are fixed numbers (called coefficients) and $x_1,x_2,\dots,x_m$ are variables.

↓ Slide 5

Example

\[ 3x_1+5x_2-7x_3+11x_4=12\] is a linear equation in 4 variables.

  • A typical solution will be a point $(x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4)\in \mathbb{R}^4$ so that $3x_1+5x_2-7x_3+11x_4$ really does equal $12$.
  • For example, $(-2,0,-1,1)$ is a solution.
  • The set of all solutions is a 3-dimensional object in $\mathbb{R}^4$, called a hyperplane.
  • Since we can't draw pictures in 4-dimensional space $\mathbb{R^4}$ we can't draw this set of solutions!
↓ Slide 6

Systems of linear equations

A system of linear equations is just a list of several linear equations. By a solution of the system, we mean a common solution of each equation in the system.

↓ Slide 7

Example

Find the line of intersection of the two planes $ x+3y+z=5$ and $ 2x+7y+4z=17$.

↓ Slide 8

Intersection of $ x+3y+z=5$ and $ 2x+7y+4z=17$

  • To find the equation of the line of intersection, we must find the points which are solutions of both equations at the same time.
  • Eliminating variables, we get $x=-16+5z$, $y=7-2z$
  • The line of intersection consists of the points $(-16+5z,7-2z,z)$, where $z\in\mathbb{R}$
↓ Slide 9

A detailed look at the last example

  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ 2x&+&7y&+&4z&=&17&&(2)\end{array}$
  • Find solutions of this system by applying operations
  • Aim to end up with a very simple sort of system where we can see the solutions easily.
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ 2x&+&7y&+&4z&=&17&&(2)\end{array}$
  • Replace equation (2) with $(2)-2\times (1)$:
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ &&y&+&2z&=&7&&(2)\end{array}$
  • Now replace equation (1) with $(1)-3\times (2)$
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&&&-&5z&=&-16&\quad&(1)\\ &&y&+&2z&=&7&&(2)\end{array}$
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&&&-&5z&=&-16&\quad&(1)\\ &&y&+&2z&=&7&&(2)\end{array}$
  • can easily rearrange (1) to find $x$ in terms of $z$
  • can easily rearrange (2) to find $y$ in terms of $z$
  • Since $z$ can take any value, write $z=t$ where $t$ is a “free parameter”
  • (which means $t$ can be any real number, or $t\in \mathbb{R}$).
  • Solution: \begin{align*} x&=-16+5t\\ y&=7-2t\\ z&=t,\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}\end{align*}
  • Solution: \begin{align*} x&=-16+5t\\ y&=7-2t\\ z&=t,\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}\end{align*}
  • Can also write this in “vector form”:
  • $\begin{bmatrix} x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} -16\\7\\0\end{bmatrix}+t\begin{bmatrix} 5\\-2\\1\end{bmatrix},\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}.$
  • This is the equation of the line where the two planes described by the original equations intersect.
  • $\begin{bmatrix} x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} -16\\7\\0\end{bmatrix}+t\begin{bmatrix} 5\\-2\\1\end{bmatrix},\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}$
  • For each value of $t$, we get a different solution (a different point on the line of intersection).
  • e.g. take $t=0$ to see that $(-16,7,0)$ is a solution
  • take $t=1.5$ to see that $(-16+1.5\times 5,7+1.5\times (-2),1.5) = (-8.5,4,1.5)$ is another solution
  • etc.
  • This works for any value $t\in\mathbb{R}$, and every solution may be written in this way.
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↓ Slide 1

Another look at the last example

  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ 2x&+&7y&+&4z&=&17&&(2)\end{array}$
  • Find solutions of this system by applying operations
  • Aim to end up with a very simple sort of system where we can see the solutions easily.
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ 2x&+&7y&+&4z&=&17&&(2)\end{array}$
  • Replace equation (2) with $(2)-2\times (1)$:
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ &&y&+&2z&=&7&&(2)\end{array}$
  • Now replace equation (1) with $(1)-3\times (2)$
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&&&-&5z&=&-16&\quad&(1)\\ &&y&+&2z&=&7&&(2)\end{array}$
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&&&-&5z&=&-16&\quad&(1)\\ &&y&+&2z&=&7&&(2)\end{array}$
  • can easily rearrange (1) to find $x$ in terms of $z$
  • can easily rearrange (2) to find $y$ in terms of $z$
  • Since $z$ can take any value, write $z=t$ where $t$ is a “free parameter”
  • (which means $t$ can be any real number, or $t\in \mathbb{R}$).
  • Solution: \begin{align*} x&=-16+5t\\ y&=7-2t\\ z&=t,\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}\end{align*}
  • Solution: \begin{align*} x&=-16+5t\\ y&=7-2t\\ z&=t,\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}\end{align*}
  • Can also write this in “vector form”:
  • $\begin{bmatrix} x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} -16\\7\\0\end{bmatrix}+t\begin{bmatrix} 5\\-2\\1\end{bmatrix},\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}.$
  • This is the equation of the line where the two planes described by the original equations intersect.
  • $\begin{bmatrix} x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} -16\\7\\0\end{bmatrix}+t\begin{bmatrix} 5\\-2\\1\end{bmatrix},\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}$
  • For each value of $t$, we get a different solution (a different point on the line of intersection).
  • e.g. take $t=0$ to see that $(-16,7,0)$ is a solution
  • take $t=1.5$ to see that $(-16+1.5\times 5,7+1.5\times (-2),1.5) = (-8.5,4,1.5)$ is another solution
  • etc.
  • This works for any value $t\in\mathbb{R}$, and every solution may be written in this way.
↓ Slide 2

Observations

  1. The operations we applied to the original linear system don't change the set of solutions. This is because each operation is reversible.
  2. Writing out the variables $x,y,z$ each time is unnecessary:
  • erase the variables from the system $$\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ 2x&+&7y&+&4z&=&17&&(2)\end{array}$$
  • write all the numbers in a grid, or a matrix
  • we get $\begin{bmatrix} 1&3&1&5\\2&7&4&17\end{bmatrix}$
  • System of linear equations: $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&+&3y&+&z&=&5&\quad&(1)\\ 2x&+&7y&+&4z&=&17&&(2)\end{array}$
  • $\begin{bmatrix} 1&3&1&5\\2&7&4&17\end{bmatrix}$ is called the augmented matrix of this linear system
  • Each row corresponds to one equation.
  • Each column corresponds to one variable
    • (except the last column, which has the right-hand-sides of the equations)
  • Instead of performing operations on equations, we can perform operations on the rows of this matrix.

\begin{align*} \begin{bmatrix} 1&3&1&5\\2&7&4&17\end{bmatrix} &\xrightarrow{R2\to R2-2\times R1} \begin{bmatrix} 1&3&1&5\\0&1&2&7\end{bmatrix} \\[6pt]&\xrightarrow{R1\to R1-3\times R1} \begin{bmatrix} 1&0&-5&-16\\0&1&2&7\end{bmatrix} \end{align*}

  • Translate back into equations and solve:
  • $\begin{array}{ccccccrrr} x&&&-&5z&=&-16&\quad&(1)\\ &&y&+&2z&=&7&&(2)\end{array}$
  • $\begin{bmatrix} x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} -16\\7\\0\end{bmatrix}+t\begin{bmatrix} 5\\-2\\1\end{bmatrix},\qquad t\in \mathbb{R}.$

This method always works:

  • take any system of linear equations
  • write down a corresponding matrix (the augmented matrix)
  • perform reversible operations on the rows of this matrix to get a “nicer” matrix
  • write down a new system of linear equations with the same solutions as the original system.
  • Hopefully the new system will be easy to solve…
  • and the solutions haven't changed, so we'll have solved the original system!
→ Slide 3

The augmented matrix and elementary operations

↓ Slide 4

Definition

Given a system of linear equations: \begin{align*} a_{11}x_1+a_{12}x_2+\dots+a_{1m}x_m&=b_1\\ a_{21}x_1+a_{22}x_2+\dots+a_{2m}x_m&=b_2\\ \hphantom{a_{11}}\vdots \hphantom{x_1+a_{22}}\vdots\hphantom{x_2+\dots+{}a_{nn}} \vdots\ & \hphantom{{}={}\!} \vdots\\ a_{n1}x_1+a_{n2}x_2+\dots+a_{nm}x_m&=b_n \end{align*} its augmented matrix is \[ \begin{bmatrix} a_{11}&a_{12}&\dots &a_{1m}&b_1\\ a_{21}&a_{22}&\dots &a_{2m}&b_2\\ \vdots&\vdots& &\vdots&\vdots\\ a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\dots &a_{nm}&b_n \end{bmatrix}.\]

The numbers in this matrix are called its entries.

↓ Slide 5

Example

  • Find the augmented matrix of the linear system\begin{align*}3x+4y+7z&=2\\x+3z&=0\\y-2z&=5\end{align*}
  • We can rewrite it as \begin{align*}3x+4y+7z&=2\\{\color{red}1}x+{\color{red}0y}+3z&=0\\{\color{red}0x}+{\color{red}1}y-2z&=5\end{align*}
  • So the augmented matrix is\[ \begin{bmatrix} 3&4&7&2\\1&0&3&0\\0&1&-2&5\end{bmatrix}.\]
↓ Slide 6

Elementary operations on a system of linear equations

If we perform one of the following operations on a system of linear equations:

  1. list the equations in a different order; or
  2. multiply one of the equations by a non-zero real number; or
  3. replace equation $j$ by “equation $j$ ${}+{}$ $c\times {}$ (equation $i$)”, where $c$ is a non-zero real number and $i\ne j$,

then the new system will have exactly the same solutions as the original system. These are called elementary operations on the linear system.

↓ Slide 7

Why do elementary operations leave the solutions of systems unchanged?

  • We do the same thing to the left hand side and the right hand side of each equation…
    • so any solution to the original system will also be a solution to the new system.
  • These operations are all reversible (using operations of the same type)…
    • so any solution to the new system will also be a solution to the original system.
↓ Slide 8

Elementary row operations on a matrix

Translate elementary operations on the linear system into operations on the rows of the augmented matrix:

  1. change the order of the rows of the matrix;
  2. multiply one of the rows of the matrix by a non-zero real number;
  3. replace row $j$ by “row $j$ ${}+{}$ $c\times {}$ (row $i$)”, where $c$ is a non-zero real number and $i\ne j$.
  • These operations are called elementary row operations or EROs on the matrix.
  • The systems of linear equations corresponding to these matrices have exactly the same solutions.
↓ Slide 9

Example

Use EROs to find the intersection of the planes \begin{align*} 3x+4y+7z&=2\\x+3z&=0\\y-2z&=5\end{align*}

↓ Slide 10

Solution 1

\begin{align*} \def\go#1#2#3{\left[\begin{smallmatrix}#1\\#2\\#3\end{smallmatrix}\right]} \def\ar#1{\\\xrightarrow{#1}&} &\go{3&4&7&2}{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5} \ar{\text{reorder rows}}\go{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5}{3&4&7&2} \ar{R3\to R3-3R1}\go{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5}{0&4&-2&2} \ar{R3\to R3-4R2}\go{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5}{0&0&6&-18} \ar{R3\to \tfrac16 R3}\go{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5}{0&0&1&-3} \end{align*}

$\go{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5}{0&0&1&-3}$

  • from the last row, we get $z=-3$
  • from the second row, we get $y-2z=5$
    • so $y-2(-3)=5$
    • so $y=-1$
  • from the first row, we get $x+3z=0$
    • so $x+3(-3)=0$
    • so $x=9$
  • Conclusion: $\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}9\\-1\\-3\end{bmatrix}$ is the only solution.
↓ Slide 11

Solution 2

We start in the same way, but by performing more EROs we make the algebra at the end simpler.

\begin{align*} \def\go#1#2#3{\left[\begin{smallmatrix}#1\\#2\\#3\end{smallmatrix}\right]} \def\ar#1{\\\xrightarrow{#1}&} &\go{3&4&7&2}{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5} \ar{\ldots \text{same EROs as above}\ldots}\go{1&0&3&0}{0&1&-2&5}{0&0&1&-3} \ar{R2\to R2+2R3}\go{1&0&3&0}{0&1&0&-1}{0&0&1&-3} \ar{R1\to R1-3R3}\go{1&0&0&9}{0&1&0&-1}{0&0&1&-3} \end{align*}

\[ \go{1&0&0&9}{0&1&0&-1}{0&0&1&-3}\]

  • from the last row, we get $z=-3$
  • from the second row, we get $y=-1$
  • from the first row, we get $x=9$
  • So $\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}9\\-1\\-3\end{bmatrix}$ is the only solution.
↓ Slide 12

Discussion

Both solutions use EROs to transform the augmented matrix.

  • Solution 1: $\left[\begin{smallmatrix}1&0&3&0\\0&1&-2&5\\0&0&1&-3\end{smallmatrix}\right]$.
    • “Staircase pattern”: 1s on “steps”, zeros below steps
    • Called row echelon form
    • Needed algebra to finish solution.
  • Solution 2: $\left[\begin{smallmatrix}1&0&0&9\\0&1&0&-1\\0&0&1&-3\end{smallmatrix}\right]$
    • Staircase with zeros above 1s on steps (and below).
    • Called reduced row echelon form
    • No extra algebra needed to finish solution.
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